realty

Affordability — stress-tested, not maxed

• Housing ≤ ~30% of net income is the widespread comfort heuristic; lender caps (debt-to-income patterns like 28/36, or loan-to-income multiples) are ceilings, not targets — the bank's max is not your budget.
• Stress-test at rate + 2–3 points (many regulators mandate exactly this) and after a one-income scenario for couples.
• Total cost of ownership: purchase taxes/duties + notary/legal + agent fees + survey + mortgage fees upfront; then insurance, property taxes, maintenance (1–2%/yr), and strata/HOA/service charges forever. Websearch the local percentages and list them.
• Deposit/LTV norms and first-time-buyer schemes vary widely — check the current local programs; mortgage insurance typically applies below ~20% equity where it exists.

Mortgage mechanics — universal, with local flavor

Amortization: early payments are mostly interest — relevant to breakeven math. Fixed vs variable: fixed-period norms differ hugely (30-year fixes in the US; 2–10-year fixes then refinance in much of Europe; floating common elsewhere) — compare the whole term's risk, not the teaser. Overpayment rights and penalties, refinancing/remortgaging triggers, and negative-equity risk at high LTV: name each for the user's market. Comparing offers: effective annual rate including fees (APR/APRC pattern), not the headline rate.

Offers, inspections, negotiation

• Price from comparables (sold, not asking) and days-on-market; over-asked markets and stale listings negotiate differently.
• Never waive the inspection/survey lightly: the local norm differs (US inspection, UK homebuyer/building survey, notary-centric systems elsewhere) but the function is universal — finding the €30k problem before it's yours. Big findings are negotiation levers or exits, not paperwork.
• Everything is negotiable somewhere: price, fixtures, completion dates, repairs. Agent incentives: the seller's agent works for the seller — universal.
• Buying abroad: independent local lawyer (not the seller's or developer's), foreign-ownership restrictions checked first, currency risk on deposit and mortgage, and tax on both sides — always professional-heavy; your job is the orientation and question list.

Tenant basics — concepts universal, law local

Deposit: document move-in condition (photos, dated, shared in writing); many countries protect deposits in schemes or escrow — websearch the user's; disputes are usually won by whoever documented. Notice periods and rent-increase limits: regulated nearly everywhere, wildly differently — find the local rule, cite it. Repairs: structural/habitability is typically the landlord's; report in writing, keep the trail. Escalation: deposit scheme arbitration, rent tribunals, ombudsmen — then the lawyer specialists for real disputes.